corporate finance Archives - Page 9 of 9 - treasuryXL

Tag Archive for: corporate finance

Managing treasury risk: Interest rate risk (Part II)

|31-1-2017 | Lionel Pavey |

There are lots of discussions concerning risk, but let us start by trying to define what we mean by risk. In my first article of this series I wrote about risk managment and what the core criteria are for a solid risk management policy. Today I want to focus on interest rate risk. There are 4 types of interest rate risk.

Absolute Interest Rate Risk

Absolute interest rate risk occurs when we are exposed to directional changes in rates – either up or down. This is the main area of rate risk that gets monitored and analysed within a company as it is immediately visible and has a potential effect on profit.

Yield Curve Risk

Yield curve risk occurs from changes between short term rates and long term rates, together with changes in the spreads between the underlying periods. Under normal circumstances a yield curve would be upward sloping if viewed as a graph. The implication is that longer term rates are higher than short term rates because of the higher risk to the lender and less liquidity in the market for long dated transactions. Changes to the yield curve (steepening or flattening) can have an impact on decisions for investment and borrowings, leading to changes in profit.

Refunding or Reinvestment Risk

Refunding or reinvestment risk occurs when borrowings or investments mature at a time when interest rates are not favourable. Borrowings or investments are rolled over at rates that had not been forecast leading to a potential loss on projects or investments.

Embedded Options Risk

Embedded options are provisions in securities that cannot be traded separately from the security and grant rights to either the issuer or the holder that can introduce additional risk. Benefits for the issuer can include a call option, a right to repay before maturity without incurring a penalty, an interest rate cap. Benefits for the holder can include a put option, a conversion right via convertible bonds, an interest rate floor.

An attempt can be made to calculate the interest rate risk on either a complete portfolio or on individual borrowings or investment. This is done by comparing the stated interest rate to the actual or projected interest rate. Methods include:

Mark to market
Parallel shift in the whole yield curve
Tailor-made shift in the whole yield curve
Duration, DV01, Convexity
Value at Risk (VaR)

These are all forms of quantitative analysis and well recognized. Personally I am of the opinion that VaR is not a very good method for interest rates. Interest rates do not display normal Gaussian distribution – they do not resemble a normal bell curve. Interest rate distribution curves display fat tails compared to normal statistical models.

Financial products that are commonly used to manage interest rate risk include FRAs, Futures, Caps, Floors, Collars, Options, Interest Rate Swaps and Swaptions.

Lionel Pavey

Cash Management and Treasury Specialist

More articles from this author:

Safety of Payments

The treasurer and data

The impact of negative interest rates

How long can interest rates stay so low?

Impact of Basel III on Notional Cash Pooling

|17-1-2017 | Arnoud Doornbos |

Since the start of the financial crisis a growing need for more bank independency with companies has arisen. Bank counterparty risk became an issue. A large cash management bank announced in 2015 to stop their transactional banking services for continental Europe. What will happen with current cash pools running with banks in the UK? Increased regulations (Basel III) may stop certain banking products.
All types of events where companies feel a growing need for more bank independency.

Basel III

In the coming years, banks have to prepare themselves for compliance with the new Basel III rules on financial institutions.
The financial crisis of 2008 brought the shortcomings of Basel II to light. The capital requirements for banks were found to be insufficient and banks were running risks which were not identified by Basel II. Therefore the focus of Basel III is to restore previous mistakes and adding requirements to both the quality and composition of the capital held by banks and liquidity position and governance to manage the risks.

Effective liquidity management is a way to look for “Idle” cash. An increasing number of companies therefore choose for notional pooling as it enables them to gain more insight into their (global) financial position and in order to optimize the interest income on their accounts.
Simultaneously Basel III imposes stricter requirements on offsetting balances (credit and debit), and this brings notional pooling possibly into danger. The question is what impact the introduction of Basel III has to notional pooling services offered by banks.

Notional Pooling

Notional pooling is a mechanism for calculating interest on the combined credit and debit balances of accounts that a corporate parent chooses to cluster together, without actually transferring any funds between the accounts. It is ideal for companies with decentralized organizations that want to allow some autonomy to their subsidiaries, including their control over bank accounts.

Benefits of notional pooling

The use of notional pooling has increased tremendously in recent years. At the moment it is a commonly used structure to concentrate balances and maximize the interest income on bank accounts. In addition it will provide companies with an increased understanding of their financial position and the company is therefore able to manage their money more effectively. Another commonly used technique is physical pooling (zero balancing) where the money from the participating accounts is transferred via a physical transfer to a higher-level account. The difference between them is that with notional pooling the money shall be paid only virtual and with physical pooling a physical transfer of money takes place. By using physical pooling through physical money transfer, internal debt positions will be created. Notional pooling and physical pooling can also be combined in an overlay structure.

Liquidity management

Basel III introduces a number of new financial ratios that aim to strengthen the capital base of banks. One of the most significant ratios is the liquidity coverage ratio which banks are required to hold in high-quality liquid assets (cash money or assets which can be sold on the market quickly). This liquidity coverage ratio shows how far banks are able to withstand sufficiently a ‘crisis’ on cash flows for a period of thirty days. Moreover, the new law increases the capital requirements for banks and make these requirements more risk-weighted than before. The requirements are also countercyclical, intended to encourage banks to build up more capital in economic good times.
Liquidity management is gaining popularity by two simultaneous developments. On the one hand, credit is a less attractive source of profit for banks, which enforced banks to shift their focus to activities without capital requirements. On the other hand, companies need to make optimal use of internal cash as bank financing is becoming increasingly difficult. Notional pooling offers the option to concentrate the balances at several (international) accounts and optimize the interest.

Uncertain future for notional pooling

Basel III does not always allow that liquidity ratios are calculated by means of netting the outstanding balances of accounts in the notional pool. This means that banks must calculate their ratios based on the gross value of individual accounts. To cover the negative positions in the notional pool banks need to hold more liquidity. The negative position is seen as overdraft, which is associated with unattractive Risk Weighted Asset (RWA) for the bank. The conditions for reducing this RWA vary by bank and are depending also on the central bank of an individual country. To prevent that banks are required to hold a higher amount of risk capital they must be in possession of a legal right of offset. However, the process to obtain this right involves a lot of time and high costs (both for the bank and the company) and requires the necessary legal and tax knowledge. First, the law in the jurisdiction of each participant of the notional pool must allow compensation in the event of bankruptcy. In addition each participant of the notional pool must sign a paper that allow them to guarantee for other participants. Finally, the company must demonstrate that netting has occurred periodically.

Regarding the future of notional pooling, there are a number of scenarios to think of when it comes to the continuation of this service by banks:

Banks will only allow entities in the notional pool if there is an enforceable right of compensation;
Banks will charge the higher costs related to notional pooling to the companies;
Banks offer notional pooling selectively based on the creditworthiness of the company.

If banks decide to increase the price for notional pooling, it is likely that companies will go for alternatives for their cash management activities (e.g. physical pooling). Therefore it is advisable to contact your bank regarding notional pooling, so you are not faced with unnecessary surprises.

Treasury Services monitors the developments in the Basel III framework closely and combines its expertise in the areas of Payments, Treasury and Risk in order to provide its customers the best advice.
The Treasury Services Cash Management Scan analyses the impact of Basel III on your current cash pools and will explain how to manage this in the future.

Bank independent Cash Pooling

Treasury Services has developed a solution to set up cash pooling structures completely independent from banks through software. This creates significant additional savings and advantages compared to a cash pooling solution with banks.

The bank independent cash pooling allows companies to pool different bank accounts with different banks in different countries.

The advantages are:

The solution we have developed is a complete solution. It does not only consist of a software solution, but also proposed changes for policies and processes, and we investigated the legal and fiscal constraints.

For more information please refer to this link.

Arnoud Doornbos

Partner at Treasury Services

Het belang van cash management in de aanloop naar bedrijfsoverdracht

| 30-11-2016 | Peter Schuitmaker |

Het belang van cash management in de aanloop naar bedrijfsoverdracht wordt vaak onderschat. Onnodig en zonde! Want cash management levert onmiddellijk een verbetering van de liquide positie of een verlaging van de rentedragende schulden.

Als voorbeeld een handelsonderneming. De omzet is 100. De bruto marge is 15. De directe kosten zijn 10. De onderneming groeit met een 2%, vergelijkbaar met de prijsindex. We kunnen hier dus spreken over een stabiele exploitatie in een evenwichtige omgeving. De onderneming wordt gewaardeerd op basis van de methodiek Adjusted Present Value. De waarderingsuitkomst komt uit op 30.

Qua werkkapitaal heeft de onderneming zijn de zaken echter niet goed op orde. De omloopsnelheid voorraden is 4. Dat wil zeggen: de gemiddelde verblijftijd van de voorraad is circa 90 dagen. Ook betalen de debiteuren structureel te laat door onvoldoende debiteurenbeheer. De overeengekomen betalingstermijn is 30 dagen. Maar de betalingstermijn is gemiddeld 60 dagen.

Waarderingsmethodiek Adjusted Present Value

De waarderingsmethodiek Adjusted Present Value is bij uitstek geschikt om business modellen en strategische opties door te rekenen. Met name om te beoordelen of er optimaal aan waarde-creatie wordt gewerkt. Zo geeft De APV methodiek handvatten voor de evaluatie van strategische opties.

Een omloopsnelheid voorraden van 15 x lijkt theoretisch haalbaar. Praktisch gezien kan 12 x worden gerealiseerd. Door stringenter debiteurenbeheer lijkt een debiteurentermijn van 35 dagen haalbaar. Wanneer deze verbeteringen over een periode van 2 jaar worden geïmplementeerd wordt waarde toegevoegd. Met management begroot incidentele ontwikkelingskosten van 0,5% van de omzet gedurende jaar 1 en 2. Daarbij valt te rekenen met structurele beheerkosten van 0,9% van de omzet. De waarderingsuitkomst komt nu uit op 40: een verbetering van 33%. Deze verbetering wordt enkel en alleen bereikt door de implementatie van een beter cash management.

Kortom: op weg naar bedrijfsoverdracht? Evalueer eerst uw cash management!

Peter Schuitmaker van BBO&F BREDA is Register Adviseur Bedrijfsopvolging. Hij is auteur van diverse boeken over bedrijfsoverdracht. Onlangs verscheen zijn boek “Een bedrijf overnemen? Keuzes maken en stappen zetten”. Dit boek is geschreven voor professionals die zich willen oriënteren op bedrijfsoverdracht.

Peter Schuitmaker

Registered Advisor for Business Transfer and Succession

When plain crazy just isn’t mad enough

| 19-05-2016 | Pieter Jan van Krevel |

So everybody knows about cat bonds. No, not corporate bonds issued by Caterpillar, but bonds linked to catastrophes. Sounds exciting, right?

Cat bonds were originally devised in the mid-1990s after Hurricane Andrew and the Northridge earthquake, both wreaking (financial) havoc in the U.S.
The financial havoc befell insurers, and the inception of the cat bonds stemmed from these events that cost the insurers a combined estimated USD 39 – 66 bn (1990s dollars). This hurt, so they devised a way to shift this risk in case disaster struck (in lieu of traditional reinsurance).

The principle is simple: investors get a handsome coupon (+300-2,000 bps spread) on a, generally, short-dated sub-investment grade bond (up to 3 yrs BB/B), if and only if, disaster does NOT strike. If it does strike, however, the investors forego their principal (let alone the coupon), and the insurers use this ‘windfall’ to pay the claims emanating from the disaster. These catastrophes, and therefore the cat bonds, are pretty much totally uncorrelated with any other asset class in a portfolio, and thus interesting and effective diversification material.

So far, so good.

But what if we take this a little further: in a way, a CDS can also be considered a cat bond. After all, we’re talking binary pay-off here. While I will not go into the (de-)merits of CDSs here, ‘disaster’ is a word that comes to mind when looking at the bloodied and mangled remains of many a CDS. But let’s leave that for another day

However for the final leap of faith we need to look at the Swiss: Credit Suisse has apparently invented the ultimate capital-relief instrument. Recently, news got out that Credit Suisse intends issuance of a special cat bond, linked to ‘operational risks’ by, amongst others, ‘failed internal processes’. We’re talking about external events, business disruptions (e.g. cybercrime), trade processing errors and, hold on to your seats, failures in regulatory compliance and rogue trading. So, when a Credit Suisse trader screws up its book (or someone else’s for that matter), the cat bond will be triggered and the trading losses will be (partly) absorbed. I fully agree to the premise that a screw-up in proprietary trading spells disaster nowadays – just think of Mr. Kerviel and JPMorgan’s London Whale to name but two.

However, there is one minor detail that sets this kind of catastrophe apart from the natural disasters that cat bonds started out to ‘reinsure’: these are man-made (financial) catastrophes, and can (and should) be mitigated by the checks and balances that financial institutions claim, and are obliged, to employ these days. Not to mention the fact that offloading risks by banks to insurers went a long way to melt down the global financial system in 2008. Who needs Andrew or Katrina when you’ve got quants and prop traders?

Sounds like a ‘Get out of jail free’ card to me. Although I am not quite sure whether Messrs. Leeson and Kerviel agree…

Pieter Jan van Krevel

Owner at Slàinte Mhath!